Several types of filtration membranes are currently commercially available. However, these materials may be very expensive to manufacture due either to the equipment needed to fabricate the material or the material itself. For example, silica nanoparticles with 200 nm particle size and 4 nm pore size 4 nm may cost about $172/5 g. The carbon nanopowders with particle size smaller than 500 nm may cost about $121/5 g. The carbon nanotubes may cost up to about $800/g. The Whatman anodic alumina membrane may cost about $512/pack of 50. A lot of room for improvement remains to lower the cost of manufacturing a filtration membrane. Additionally, because a filtration membrane is subjected to an environment that may be highly corrosive, pre-existing filtration membranes frequently encounter the challenge of having a short operation life.